Nicolaus Copernicus never witnessed the vast revolutionary influence his works would have upon the civilized world. His major contributions to the understanding of astronomy came late in life, and the first edition of his "Six Books on the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs" was published while Copernicus lay on his death bed. The most radical concept and conclusion of the volume was the idea of a heliocentric, or sun-centered system. The collection languished in obscure halls of learning for nearly a century before Galileo Galilei supported their findings when he published his telescopic observations. The most prominent of Galileo’s books, "Dialogue and the Two Chief World Systems", finally brought condemnation from the Catholic church. All books that the church could identify as supporting a system in which the Earth was not at the center of the known universe were placed on a prohibited list. Galileo was censured and eventually died under house arrest for his findings.

The Catholic church viewed such an idea as heresy. Any concept of the cosmos that did not assume the Earth as the center of creation, allowed the possibility of randomness in the universe. As far as the church was concerned, the holy scriptures taught that the Earth was created by God in a very deliberate, ordered, and purposeful way. Everything observable to man was created by God for man, including the land, sea, animals, and plants. Even the heavens. Since man was God’s greatest creation, everything else was literally on the periphery of man, including the Sun, Moon, and stars. Genesis had occurred 6000 years ago. Before that, there was only God.

Despite the repression, Copernicanism survived and over the course of the seventeenth century managed to be spread throughout Europe.

The natural question that came as an outgrowth of the Copernican view, and a major reason for the concern of the Catholic church, was that of a plurality of worlds. Now that the Earth was just one of six planets known to orbit the sun, what of those other worlds? The other planets orbited the same sun. Would it not be a waste if those worlds were not inhabited as well? And what of the stars? Was each a distant sun like our own, supporting it’s own collection of inhabited planets?

Ironically Galileo, the man responsible for promoting the heliocentric system, considered the idea of a plurality of worlds "false, and damnable", even while he remained under arrest.

Speculation of a plurality of worlds continued through the 18^th century. The famous discoverer of the planet Uranus, William Herschel, promoted his belief that the Sun and Moon were inhabited. In 1795 he declared that

sun and moon were inhabited by beings whose organs "were adapted to the peculiar circumstances of those luminaries." (Philosophical Transactions 85:63-66)

The public’s interest was stimulated by such possibilities, and the media took advantage. The tabloid-like almanacs delivered reports of other lands and seas, "both green and barren mountainous spots, and even the sighting of a large edifice, of a magnitude greater than St. Paul’s". Promises of a description of the inhabitants thereof were to follow shortly. All this, according to the media, from the powerful glasses of Mr. Herschel.

The continued public interest was to reach a frenzied climax with the Great Moon Hoax of 1835.

Long before that though, religious leaders were grappling with the questions posed by the plurality of worlds concept. Methodist theologian Adam Clarke wrote: "There is scarcely any doubt now remaining in the philosophical world that the moon is a habitable globe. The most accurate observations that have been made with the most powerful telescopes have confirmed the opinion." Even the stars "are considered to be suns, similar to that in our system, each having an appropriate number of planets moving round it; and, as these stars are innumerable, consequently there are innumerable worlds, all dependent on the power, protection, and providence of God." 
(The Holy Bible…With a Commentary and Critical Notes, 7 vols, (N.Y., 1811), 1:36).

Clark, referring to Deuteronomy 10:14, and the phrase "heaven of heavens" explained it like this: "The words were probably intended to point out the immensity of God's creation, in which we may readily conceive one system of heavenly bodies, and others beyond them, and others still in endless progression through the whole vortex of space, every star in the vast abyss of nature being a sun, with its peculiar and numerous attendant worlds! Thus there may be systems of systems in endless gradation up to the throne of God." 
(The Holy Bible…With a Commentary and Critical Notes, 7 vols, (N.Y., 1811), 1:766-67)

Whereas the Roman church had perceived any change in the view of the cosmos as a threat to the traditional idea of humanity’s special relationship with god, some liberal theologians were actually embracing the concept of a plurality of worlds as proof of God’s grandeur.

Paraphrasing the seventeenth century’s Robert Burton, Clark outlined a cosmological worldview that both integrated a plurality of worlds, while still respecting the vanity of mankind as the crucial, central element of creation.

"By a very correct analogy," Clarke suggested, "we are led to infer that all the planets and their satellites, or attendant moons, are inhabited, for matter seems only to exist for the sake of intelligent beings."    (The Anatomy of Melancholy, 3 vols, 1:15; 2:55)

Burton concluded that the creation of "infinite worlds" devoid of life would have been "an infinite waste." Accordingly, if even one planet was uninhabited, the whole argument would be untenable. The argument led Burton to wonder about the theological implications raised, and to ask if the extraterrestrials would have "souls to be saved?" 
(The Holy Bible…With a Commentary and Critical Notes, 7 vols, (N.Y., 1811), 1:36).

In 1826 America, the Reverend Amos Pettengill argued in his book, A View of the Heavens, or Familiar Lessons on Astronomy, that "the Planets are evidently calculated and designed to accommodate rational beings. They are like this Earth, and some of them vastly larger.… Many circumstances constrain us to believe that they are filled with inhabitants; and that every fixed Star illuminates worlds peopled with creatures like ourselves, but not involved with us in rebellion against the Creator—that there is peace in all his high places." 
(A View of the Heavens, or Familiar Lessons on Astronomy (New Haven, 1826) p. 64)

Christian defenders of plurality returned to the Bible in order to bolster their position. One reference commonly used to support the idea that Jesus created multiple worlds was Hebrews 1:2:

"God … hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son, whom he hath appointed heir of all things, by whom also he made the worlds."

Deist Thomas Paine’s influential book The Age of Reason, first published in 1794, included such statements as: "the immensity of space will appear to us to be filled with systems of worlds; and that no part of space lies at waste." And: "the Creator made nothing in vain," every planet is an inhabited world. Paine even used the concept of multiplicity of in an argument against the Christian faith. "Are we to suppose that every world, in the boundless creation, had an Eve, an apple, a serpent, and a redeemer? In this case, the person who is irreverently called the Son of God, and sometimes God himself, would have nothing else to do than to travel from world to world, in an endless succession of death with scarcely a momentary interval of life."     (The Age of Reason (N.Y. 1794), 121, 123, 126)

In 19^th century rural New York the argument was aired in the Palmyra Register for November 24^th, 1819: "The Creator has made nothing without adjudging it to some purpose and those suns above were not made for affording this earth a dubious light. A most convincing fact may be mentioned as a further proof of the plurality of worlds; that the optic tube [telescope] discovers at every glance more worlds and systems in the blue immense.."

In 1828 natural theologian Thomas Dick attempted to align Christian theology with the material universe of science as well as the nineteenth-century concept of plural worlds. Dick insisted that every star and planet was inhabited because God "has created nothing in vain." He even speculated that the worlds were inhabited by "various orders of intelligences" and that these beings were eternally progressing towards perfection. Dick envisioned an elaborate cosmology in which "the systems of the universerevolve around a common centre … the throne of God."                                               (Philosophy of a Future State (2^nd Ed, Brookfield, ma, 1830), 48, 101, 176, 230, 241, 249)

As for the physical layout of the universe, Thomas Paine put forward some common thoughts of the day:

"Far beyond all power of calculation, are the stars called the fixed stars. They are called fixed, because they have no revolutionary motion as the six worlds or planets [of this solar system] have.… Those fixed stars continue always at the same distance from each other, and always in the same place, as the Sun does in the center of our system. The probability therefore is, that each of those fixed stars is also a Sun, round which another system of worlds or planets, though too remote for us to discover, performs its revolutions, as our system of worlds does round our central Sun."

By the 1820’s another book was having even more influence than Thomas Paine’s Age of Reason, in the minds of those considering a plurality of worlds.

"A Series of Discourses on the Christian Revelation Viewed in Connection with the Modern Astronomy" (1817) by the Reverend Thomas Chalmers, a young Scottish minister. Chalmers's Astronomical Discourses produced among American readers an unparalleled appreciation of the magnificence of God's creation. It met with instant and wide success.

Early on Chalmers sketches the dimensions of our solar system and the extent of the stellar universe, including the idea of multiple inhabited world systems.

The nineteenth century was a time of great discovery, especially in Europe and America. The black arts of alchemy and hermetics were quickly losing favor to the new world of science. The occult and folk magic had been dealt critical blows starting two centuries before. A scientific revolution, led by Isaac Newton broke upon the scene in the mid-1600’s reckognizing only the empirically observable and provable as scientific reality. The understanding of preceeding centuries explained our world as composed of 4 basic elements: Earth, Air, Fire, and Water. Newtonian mechanics applied a new set of mathematically sound explanations for the observed phenomenon in the universe, taking as it’s basic elements: Matter, Motion, and Force. From the time of publication of Newton’s milestone work "Principia Mathematica" in 1687, through the next 100 years, nearly all European and American scientists came to fully accept Newtonianism. This period of enlightenment was reflected throughout the arts and sciences, immortalizing such names as French scientist Pierre Simon de LaPlace, German philosopher Immanuel Kant, and electrical theoretician the American Benjamin Franklin. The ensuing influence that the scientific revolution of the 1600’s had on Western thought was so powerful, that even the name by which the 18^th century would become to be known was a result: The Age of Reason.

Meanwhile, in the realm of religion, traditional churches served their congregations with long established and proven methods. But the new world of science was offering explanations which were not always in agreement with the traditional religious teachings. Theologians were still wrestling with reprocussions resonating from the question of a plurality of worlds. A question prompted by the then universally accepted helio-centric solar system, and by science’s continued discovery of a seemingly unlimited number of stars and astronomical bodies.

Mormonism attempted to overcome that seeming incompatibility. Joseph Smith deftly melded science and religion by embracing all worldy things as part and parcel of a grand eternal plan of God. As he had a few years before smoothly segued from the world of folk magic and treasure quest to the establishment of a congregational religion, again he confidently looked to science not as a threat, but as a partner of divine revelation, to explain the workings of God. In fact, Joseph produced revelations and teachings treating many aspects of nature, sometimes with particular specificity. For example, Smith taught a concept that may be called "the eternal nature of matter". As early as May, 1833, the Prophet declared that, "the elements are eternal". (D & C 93:33) (D&C 99:33)

And in a sermon delivered in April, 1844, he said:

"Element had an existence from the time God had. The pure principles of element are principles which can never be destroyed; they may be organized and reorganized, but not destroyed. They had no beginning, and can have no end." (The Contributor, vol 4, p. 257)

Without much stretch of the imagination, one can see an uncanny simularity between Smith’s idea of eternal matter, and the modern principle of conservation of energy.

Since the elements are eternal, Mormon theology teaches that the earth was fashioned from materials already existing in the universe, by a God operating within time and space, using not supernatural powers, but advanced physical methods, Of this,

Brigham Young said:

God never made something out of nothing; it is not in the economy or law by which the worlds were, are, or will exist. (Journal of Discourses 14:116)

Another unique doctrine taught by the founder of Mormonism was the nature of Spirit. The general understanding of Joseph’s contemporaries as to spirit was that of an intangible, invisible entity. Mormonism taught that on the contrary, spirit is not only material, it consists of a Celestial material which is highly refined. (D&C 131:7-8, cut and paste it here)

Mormonism associated the elements of spirit and matter as one and the same, nearly denying the existence of the spiritual in favor of the material. Spirit was just an expression to describe a particular form of physical matter.

As Joseph Smith wrote, "There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; we cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that all is matter" (Hansen 1981, 28). He explained, "A spirit is as much matter as oxygen or hydrogen" (O'Dea 1957, 120). He added, "God the father is material, Jesus Christ is material. Angels are material. Space is full of materiality. Nothing exists which is not material" (Hansen 1981, 71).

In a revelation given to Joseph it was explained that matter was requisite for the fulfillment of man:

The marriage of matter and spirit is the order of the eternities: "spirit and element, inseparably connected, receive a fullness of joy; And when separated, man cannot receive a fullness of joy" 
(D&C 93:33-34).

As for the nature of the Holy Spirit mentioned in the scriptures, early Mormonism proposed yet another novel explanation. Whereas modern Mormons are taught that the Holy Ghost is a distinct and finite being of spirit, Joseph taught that the Holy Spirit is actually a substance. And the essence of that substance is intelligence. Therefore, intelligence itself became material. In his book "Joseph Smith as Scientist"' Apostle-to-be John A. Widtsoe said: The Church now teaches, that all space is filled with a subtle, though material substance of wonderful properties, by which all natural phenomena are controlled. This substance is known as the Holy Spirit. Its most important characteristic is intelligence. "Its inherent properties embrace all the attributes of intelligence."† The property of intelligence is to the Holy Spirit what energy is to the gross material of our senses.
(John A. Widtsoe, Joseph Smith As Scientist, Ch.3, p.16 - p.17)

Furthermore, this Holy Spirit was said to occupy all spaces. An ever present carrier of thought and effect throughout the known universe, analogous to the 19^th century notion of the universal ether. In fact, it was said, that the effects of the Holy Spirit were even manifest in the violent natural forces at work on the Earth. Quoting a generally accepted work of the Church, Widtsoe continued: "Man observes a universal energy in nature, organization and disorganization succeed each other; the thunders roll through the heavens; the earth trembles and becomes broken by earthquakes; fires consume cities and forests; the waters accumulate, flow over their usual bounds, and cause destruction of life and property; the worlds perform their revolutions in space with a velocity and power incomprehensible to man, and he, covered with a veil of darkness, calls this universal energy, God, when it is the workings of his Spirit, the obedient agent of his power, the wonder-working and life-giving principle in all nature." (John A. Widtsoe, Joseph Smith As Scientist, Ch.3, p.17)

Church teachings equated yet another element with spirit, matter, and intelligence.

Joseph Smith, in a revelation received on December 27, 1832, wrote:

"The light which now shineth, which giveth you light, is through him who enlighteneth your eyes, which is the same light that quickeneth your understandings; which light proceedeth forth from the presence of God to fill the immensity of space. The light which is in all things: which is the law by which all things are governed: even the power of God." (D&C 88: 11-13)

Parley P. Pratt, an apostle, wrote:

"As the mind passes the boundaries of the visible world, and enters upon the confines of the more refined and subtle elements, it finds itself associated with certain substances in themselves invisible to our gross organs, but clearly manifested to our intellect by their tangible operations and effects." "The purest, most refined and subtle of all these substances - is that substance called the Holy Spirit." "It is omnipresent." "It is in its less refined particles, the physical light which reflects from the sun, moon and stars, and other substances; and by reflection on the eye makes visible the truths of the outward world."*(Key to Theology, 5^th Ed. pp. 38-41)

The natural light then, entering our eyes and allowing us to see, consisted of less refined particles of the Holy Spirit, which was in turn more highly refined particles of matter, all of which made up a universal, omnipresent intelligence. This convergence of forces, light, matter, spirit, and intelligence encompassed all things that can be imagined. Everything that ever existed; the stars and planets, animals and plants, and even man, was constructed of this eternal substance, which only God fully understood.

Brigham Young said:

Though there are few if any references that support a doctrine of multiple worlds in the Book of Mormon, shortly after the organization of the church, Joseph Smith had a revelation in which the first inkling of extraterrestrial worlds is affirmed. In this revelation, called "Visions of Moses," the Old Testament Moses sees in vision many earths as well as their inhabitants: "And he beheld many lands; and each land was called earth, and there were inhabitants on the face thereof".

Moses is told by God that "the first man of all men, have I called Adam, which is many" (Moses 1:34; RLDS D&C 22:21c). Moses is also told that "Adam called his wife's name Eve, because she was the mother of all living; for thus have I, the Lord God, called the first of all women, which are many" (Moses 4:26)

in December of 1830, Joseph dictated another revelation which detailed the extent of God’s creations. In this revelation, called the "Prophecy of Enoch", Enoch the prophet says to God:

"Were it possible that man could number the particles of the earth, yea, millions of earths like this, it would not be a beginning to the number of thy creations; and thy curtains are stretched out still; and yet thou art there, and thy bosom is there"(Moses 7:30; RLDS D&C 36:6d-6e)

According to Joseph Smith, God also told Moses that the extent of the worlds spans time as well as space:

"There are many worlds that have passed away.... And there are many that now stand ... And as one earth shall pass away, and the heavens thereof even so shall another come; and there is no end to my works, neither to my words" (Moses 1: 35, 38)

The origin of the people of these worlds are also revealed:  "the inhabitants thereof are begotten sons and daughters of God; . . . worlds without end" (D&C 76:24, 112)

A new element is introduced into Mormon cosmology when Enoch is then told that the inhabitants of this earth are the most wicked of all God's children:

"Behold, I am God; Man of Holiness is my name; Man of Counsel is my name; and Endless and Eternal is my name, also. Wherefore, I can stretch forth mine hands and hold all the creations which I have made; and mine eye can pierce them also, and among all the workmanship of mine hands there has not been so great wickedness as among thy brethren"(Moses 7:35-36; RLDS D&C 36:7d-7e)

 The prophet then reveals God’s main purpose of being, which has become to this day a familiar and often repeated couplet in Mormon circles:

The confidence with which many early church leaders approached the world of science must have felt refreshing to large numbers of converts. While many other church's beliefs were ambivalent, if not hostile toward many scientific concepts, the 19^th century Mormons for the most part enthusiastically embraced science as compatible with God’s plan. They fully expected scientific discovery to eventually confirm all that their inspired prophets said were God’s teachings. Brigham Young probably had one of the most progressive attitudes toward science. He declared his religion as "Natural Philosophy".           (Journal of Discourses Vol. 4: 202-3)

He taught that rather than conflict, religion and science are in reality one and the same:

"Our religion embraces chemistry; it embraces all the knowledge of the geologist, and then it goes a little further than their systems of argument, for the Lord Almighty, its author, is the greatest chemist there is". (Journal of Discourses 15:127)

"In these respects we differ from the Christian world, for our religion will not clash with or contradict the facts of science in any particular". (Journal of Discourses 14:116)

 In a discourse given in 1853, Brigham continued the theme:

"If, on the Sabbath day, when we are assembled here to worship the Lord, one of the Elders should be prompted to give us a lecture on any branch of education with which he is acquainted, is it outside the pale of our religion"?

"… Or if an Elder shall give us a lecture upon astronomy, chemistry, or geology, our religion embraces it all. It matters not what the subject be, if it tends to improve the mind, exalt the feelings, and enlarge the capacity. The truth that is in all the arts and sciences forms a part of our religion. Faith is no more a part of it than any other true principle of philosophy".(Journal of Discourses Vol 1, pp. 334-335)

Other Church authorities of the period also advocated remarkably pro-science views. Orson Pratt shared his enthusiasm for science, and implored all people to study the sciences, for by doing so, they would be studying the works of God:

"The study of science is the study of something eternal. If we study astronomy, we study the works of God. If we study chemistry, geology, optics, or any other branch of science, every new truth we come to the understanding of is eternal; it is a part of the great system of universal truth. It is truth that exists throughout universal nature; and God is the dispenser of all truth--scientific, religious, and political. Therefore let all classes of citizens and people endeavor to improve their time more than heretofore--to train their minds to that which is best calculated for their good and the good of the society which surrounds them". (Journal of Discourses 7:157)

A late 19^th century article in the Mormon newspaper "The Millennial Star", shows that the same perspective was still dominant nearly 60 years after the organization of the church:

"The pressing need of the age is a system of religion that can recognize, at the same time, the truths of demonstrated science and the doctrines found in the pages of sacred writ, and can show that perfect harmony exists between the works and words of the Creator; a religion that will reach both the head and the heart—that is, will satisfy both the intellect and the conscience." 
(Science and Religion, Millennial Star, 60 (1 Dec 1898, p. 761)